Introduction: A Reflection on Hindu TheologyHinduism has always been interpretable as monotheistic, as it presents a plurality of gods that many Hindus understand as expressions of a single transcendent deity. This Element traces the emergence of this monotheistic idea, where a single deity serves as the source of the universe and all other gods, through textual sources in Hindu traditions. Hinduism, a complex set of traditions sharing cultural forms and patterns rooted in the ancient Vedic revelation, demonstrates monotheism predating Islamic or Christian influences, as exemplified by Krishna's universal form (visvarupa) in the Bhagavad-gita, revealing a singular nature with pluriform aspects. While the term "Hinduism" is modern, originating in the nineteenth century, and "Hindu" emerged in the sixteenth to distinguish from Muslims, its anachronistic use is justified by historical continuity from Vedic texts. Unifying tendencies exist within Hindu traditions, though the relationship between Hinduism and specific sects like Saiva or Vaisnava is intricate. Hinduism is defined more by practice (orthopraxy) than belief (orthodoxy), as Frits Staal noted that what defines a Hindu is actions, not beliefs, and Axel Michaels describes it as an identificatory habitus regulating life ritually. The thesis posits that Hindu monotheism is linked to historical, social, and political developments like kingship, yet its philosophical and theological discourse transcends mere reduction to these factors, allowing examination as a textually instantiated idea that has always permitted monotheistic interpretation.
This Element describes the history of this monotheistic idea while offering theological reflections, such as whether a transcendent God outside the universe can be known or only approached through negation of attributes. Monotheism here means a supreme, transcendent deity who impels, sustains, and destroys the universe, serving as the ultimate source of all gods as emanations, distinct from Abrahamic creatio ex nihilo. This Hindu monotheism develops within Hinduism's history, serving as a lens for understanding traditions where a transcendent deity dominates discourse, inspires devotion, and attracts royal patronage. It is inseparable from social imaginaries and human flourishing, tied to freedom from suffering, personhood debates against Buddhist and Jain views, ontology, and dharma. Set in political contexts of kingship and patronage, and social milieus of caste, it draws on scriptures, philosophy, and inscriptions. A historical sketch reveals monotheism's seeds in the Veda, emergence in the late first millennium BCE to early CE, flowering in the first millennium CE forming modern Hinduism, and shifts from the sixteenth century into modernity and India's nation-state, always interpretable as monotheistic through its unifying theological threads.Is Hinduism a Polytheism or a Monotheism?Hinduism can be and has always been interpretable as monotheistic, even while embracing polytheism, as its hierarchical cosmos integrates multiple gods into a single transcendent source. Max Müller described Vedic religions as henotheism, worshipping one god as supreme at a time. Hinduism is both polytheistic and monotheistic when understood cosmologically: the Hindu cosmos is hierarchical, containing visible and invisible forms like spirits, gods, and demons in a "great chain of being" or "scale of forms," influenced by metaphysics and politics. By the first millennium CE, texts like the Netra Tantra (eighth century Kashmir, influential in Nepal) laud supreme deities like Amrtesvara and Amrtesvari as forms of Siva and the Goddess, addressing protection from malevolent forces via rituals and magic, exemplifying "practical polytheism" that persists today, as in warding off the evil eye.
This enchanted worldview implies a "porous" or "permeable" self, embedded in society and cosmos, interacting with invisible powers for protection and enhancement, ultimately seeking salvation from suffering. The self is "dividual," transactional in hierarchical caste networks based on purity, with Brahmins high and Dalits low, per Dumont's purity-power distinction. Kings embody divine qualities, linking social plurality to cosmic beings. Polytheism populates the cosmos hierarchically, mirroring human order, with rituals controlling interactions. Yet monotheism fits this enchanted cosmos: a transcendent God, accessed via hierarchy, images, incarnations, and holy persons, intervenes historically (e.g., as Rama, Krishna) and is analogous to a sovereign king ruling a mandala. Similarities with Abrahamic monotheism include unknowable essence, creation/emanation, historical intervention, time control, grace/salvation, and goodness, allowing Hinduism's polytheistic elements to be reinterpreted monotheistically. Differences include no creatio ex nihilo (God acts on eternal matter), affirmation of images, no telos for creation beyond play or liberation, and cyclic time with individual liberation versus collective judgment, yet these do not preclude monotheistic interpretations, as Hinduism's plurality has always pointed to an underlying unity.Difference in IdentityHinduism has always been interpretable as monotheistic by distinguishing it from monism, where all forms are identical to a single substance, yet emanationism—dominant in Hinduism—allows a supreme deity to emanate the universe while retaining transcendence. Monotheism posits a transcendent source sustaining the world; monism sees difference as illusory or aspects of one substance. Strict monism, like Sankara's Advaita Vedanta or Abhinavagupta's Saiva non-dualism, views reality as consciousness, tending toward emanation language. Dualist systems, like Saiva Siddhanta, see universe/selves pervaded by God's power but distinct substances. Emanationism, as in Jivagosvamin, views universe as divine transformation while God remains transcendent. Hinduism generally denies absolute ontological distinction, with God acting on pre-existing substance, contrasting Abrahamic creatio ex nihilo, yet this enables monotheistic readings where polytheism emanates from one God.
A diagram illustrates: Monotheism (God transcendent, universe/self distinct and real substances); Emanationism (God transcendent and immanent, universe real but part of God, self distinct but part/equal to God); Monism (God immanent, universe/self identical with God). These types show Hinduism's flexibility in monotheistic interpretation, as even monism can be seen as a form where the one reality is divine.Seeing the DivineHinduism's monotheistic interpretability is evident in its emphasis on "seeing" (darsana) the divine through images, a distinctive feature allowing direct access to the transcendent God. Theology stresses darsana as transformative, resonating the mind with deity. Hearing names or singing praise equates aurally. Icons, self-manifested or human-made, enable worship; the devotee sees God, and God sees the devotee, fostering mutual gaze and enhancement. Devotion (bhakti) and grace are key, though Sant tradition, influenced by Sufism, rejected images for internalized meditation on transcendent nirguna God. This visual-aural access to the one God underscores Hinduism's monotheistic core amid apparent polytheism.Monotheism as Social CritiqueHindu monotheism has always been interpretable as supporting social order, yet with limited critique, reinforcing Brahmanical dominance without revolutionary transformation. Philosophies/theologies generally upheld cultural mores, with little challenge to caste, unlike Buddhist/Jain rejections. Political treatises like Kautilya's Arthasastra exist, but kings harnessed theology without envisioning societal change. Law books (Smrtis) articulate monotheism modeled on sovereignty, preserving polity. Cyclic time (yugas) views history as declining, focusing on sustained order and transcendent salvation via renunciation, allowing monotheistic interpretations that prioritize spiritual over social reform.The TragicHindu monotheism's interpretability as monotheistic is highlighted in its tragic yet hopeful worldview, emphasizing human suffering and redemption across vast ages. Levity exists (Siva as disguised king, Krishna flirting), but tragedy dominates: the human condition as suffering, with sacrifice central—Vedic actual, epic metaphorical (Mahabharata war as sacrifice, renunciation as sacrifice). Giving up immediate for greater good involves struggle (asceticism). God, implicated in strife, redeems, animating Indic civilization tragically yet aspirationally transformative, always open to monotheistic understanding where a single deity oversees this cosmic drama.1. Early Hindu MonotheismHinduism has always been interpretable as monotheistic from its early roots in Vedic texts, where seeds of a supreme deity emerge, developing into clear monotheism in Upanishads and Bhagavad-gita. Early Vedic (Rg-veda, ~1400-1000 BCE) is liturgical poetry for sacrifice, praising gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Soma for reciprocity, reflecting "noble" Aryas' pastoral life. Myths imply polytheism, but ontological reflections, like the Nasadiya hymn questioning existence's origin, foreshadow monotheism. Hymns are performative for practical benefits.
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads (~7th-2nd century BCE) reflect on sacrifice, elevating brahman (ritual power) over gods. Upanishads identify brahman as absolute reality sustaining cosmos, equated with self (atman), predominantly monistic/emanationist: universe emanates from absolute (e.g., Brhadaranyaka: death as cosmos source, cosmic man dividing into male/female creating creatures, brahman as super-creation). Yajnavalkya identifies self with ungraspable brahman (neti neti). Chandogya uses metaphors (sap in wood, salt in water) for atman-brahman identity; Prajapati incubates cosmos from pre-existing substance via heat, manifesting as OM. Liberation ties to realizing oneness/detachment. Katha-upanisad's Naciketas-Death story reveals primeval being (purana) as God/devotion's object, beyond heaven/sacrifice, interpretable as monotheistic with a transcendent deity.
Svetasvatara-upanisad (~200 BCE-200 CE) marks clear monotheism: transcendent God (Rudra/Siva) beyond universe, known via meditation (dhyana-yoga), freeing from bonds. Triad: God, power (sakti/maya/prakrti/pradhana as illusory/creative force), self (atman). Universe as God's net/spider web; souls unbound/bound modes. Liberation via asceticism/grace (prasada), devotion (bhakti). Influenced by Bhagavad-gita, it integrates monotheism with earlier monism, stressing interpretability as a supreme deity emanating the cosmos.
Bhagavad-gita (~150-100 BCE core) presents robust monotheism: Krishna reveals as God impelling/sustaining/destroying universe, source of all. Paradoxes: transcendence/immanence, freedom vs. predetermination, theodicy. Universe as sacrifice; Krishna transcendent yet immanent. Souls (jiva) as God's part, entangled in matter (prakrti). Devotion (bhakti) leads to grace/liberation; inclusivism (worship of others = worship of one God). Ambiguity: emanation vs. God acting on eternal matter, allowing monotheistic interpretations where polytheism serves the one supreme deity.2. Developed TheologiesHinduism's monotheistic interpretability deepened in the early Middle Ages, with sharp formulations against Buddhism/Jainism, focusing on Siva, Visnu, Goddess; multiplicity as emanations of one God. "Sanskritization" absorbed local gods. Periodization: pre-Gupta (~600 CE) "classical," post-Gupta "medieval" (development, not degeneration). Intellectual history: arguments demarcated, syncretized.Monotheism and KingshipHindu monotheism has always been interpretable as aligned with kingship, reflecting social hierarchy in divine models. Caste/social stratification established; kingship as embedded hierarchy (Stein: vassals pay tribute, e.g., Vijayanagara). Divinity modeled on human relations, especially kingship (deva = god/king). God as sovereign radiating lesser deities (e.g., Siva delegates creation to Ananta/Vidyesvaras). Functions: justice (danda), righteousness (dharma as hierarchical order), war. Monotheism maps to governance (centralization/legislature); supports status quo but has independent theological life, allowing interpretations where divine kingship mirrors earthly order while transcending it.Saiva MonotheismHinduism's Saiva traditions demonstrate monotheistic interpretability through four kinds: popular/Veda-congruent Puranas/Sivadharma (lay devotion to supreme Siva); Veda-congruent Saiva Siddhanta (Tantras as revelation, initiatory, salvation via ritual/grace); Veda-rejecting Mantramarga (non-theistic); Goddess-focused Kulamarga (transgressive, monotheism with Goddess ruling alone). "Saiva Age" (8th-13th century): Saivism dominated South/Southeast Asia (Kashmir, Cholas, Khmer). Intellectual trajectories: dualist Siddhanta (transcendent God distinct from matter/souls) vs. non-dualists (ultimate identity). This diversity shows Hinduism's capacity for monotheistic unity amid varied expressions.The Philosophy of MonotheismHindu monotheism's philosophical depth allows consistent interpretability as a rational theism. 9th-10th centuries debated God's existence (isvara). Nyaya: rational proofs (cosmological: universe as effect infers intelligent, omniscient God). Udayana/Jayanta Bhatta elaborated; adopted by Saivas. Utpaladeva defended against Mimamsa (Kumarila: no creator, karma causes universe) and Buddhists (Dharmakirti: no invariable concomitance). Parakhya-tantra: universe as effect, God as instigating cause, matter/auxiliary as material/instrumental. Triad: God, matter, selves; five acts (creation, maintenance, destruction, concealment, revelation) address theodicy/purpose (creation for souls' liberation). These arguments affirm Hinduism's monotheistic rationality.The Non-Dualist Argument and MonotheismNon-dualists (Pratyabhijna/Recognition school) interpret monotheism as a lower level, ultimately monistic, showing Hinduism's flexible monotheistic framework. Somananda: universe as Siva's manifestation (gold in jewels); consciousness unifies subject/object. Utpaladeva/Abhinavagupta: light (prakasa)/self-reflection (vimarsa) metaphor; universe as Siva's appearance (abhasa), waves of power (sakti). Goddess as pulsing heart. Pantheism: world not illusion/shadow but consciousness fullness; recognition (pratyabhijna) of self-God identity. Against Buddhists/Siddhantins, this absorbs monotheism while transcending it, allowing monotheistic readings at devotional levels.South Indian DevotionalismSouth Indian devotionalism (bhakti) infuses Saiva monotheism with emotion, interpretable as intimate love for a transcendent God. Tamil poetry (Cankam anthologies) influenced Siddhanta with bhakti (emotional longing). Nayanars' poetry (Tirumurai, Tevaram, Tiruvacakam, 6th-8th centuries): "mad" love for Siva in temples. Lingayats (from Pasupatas): devotional Kannada poetry (e.g., Mahadevyakka's intimate Siva as "Lord White as Jasmin"). Vaisnava Alvars (Tiruvaymoli by Nammalvar, ~880-930): Visnu as king/lover; viraha bhakti, temple icons, music/dance. This emotional monotheism shows Hinduism's capacity for personal, transcendent devotion.Vaisnava VedantaVaisnava Vedanta offers monotheistic types: Sankara's monism (atman-brahman identity) rejected by Ramanuja's qualified non-dualism (God transcendent yet immanent as self to body; panentheism) and Madhva's dvaita (eternal distinctions between God/world/self; pure grace salvation). These interpretations highlight Hinduism's monotheistic diversity, from identity to radical distinction.3. Hindu Monotheism in ModernityHindu monotheism's modern interpretability evolved under Muslim/British influences, with Saiva age ending (~13th century), Vaisnava theology rising (Ramanuja/Madhva). Sufi-influenced Sants (Kabir, Nanak): transcendent nirguna God. Vernacular poetry (Hindi) in courts/popularly expressed monotheism.The Love of GodBhagavata Purana (11th century) presents monotheistic devotion: Krishna as cowherd, erotic with gopis (circle dance); mutual gaze/devotion. Caitanya (1486-1533): emotional bhakti, grace via chanting/dancing; Bengal Vaisnava theology by Gosvamins (Rupa/Jiva): aesthetic=religious experience; love in separation (viraha/prema) as model (Radha as hladini sakti); acintyabhedabheda. This intimate monotheism shows Hinduism's enduring interpretability as transcendent love.Political TheologyJaipur's Jai Singh II (1688-1743): maintained independence, promoted Krishna monotheism as state religion supporting dharma (varnasrama). Concerned illicit love image undermines morality; theologians integrated bhakti/karma/dharma. Theology in public sphere, supporting state/king as God's reflection, interpretable as political monotheism.Monotheism as Response to ModernityBritish colonialism (mid-18th century): Hinduism "constructed" as religion. Rammohun Roy (1772-1833): rational monotheism (deist, influenced by Islam/Christianity); rejected images/incarnations/polytheism; Brahmo Samaj (1828) for reform (suttee ban). Emphasized ethics, Upanishads as source. Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839): "bourgeois Vedanta" (prosperity+spirituality). Vivekananda: divine in all fosters harmony/tolerance (Neo-Vedanta, idealism). Traditional: Bhaktivinod (1838-1914) promoted Gaudiya monotheism (saguna God), inclusivist hierarchy; initiation/ritual essential. Continued via Bhaktisiddhanta/Prabhupada (ISKCON). These responses affirm Hinduism's monotheistic adaptability to modernity.Monotheism in the UniversitiesSeventeenth-century new Nyaya (~17th century): epistemology/logic over monotheism. Neo-Vedanta influenced (Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Tagore, Gandhi, Tilak). Philosophy centers: Calcutta, Mysore, etc. (Bhattacharya, Hiryanna, Mukerji, Dasgupta, Radhakrishnan). Monotheism devotional/intellectual outside universities; secularism (Gandhi/Nehru) prioritized rights amid diversity, yet Hinduism's monotheistic traditions persisted interpretably.Comparative TheologyHindu-Christian dialogue: Williams (1856), Theosophists (Advaita privilege), Jesuits (de Nobili~Dhavamony). Hindu engagements: Upadhyay (convert). Recent: Clooney/Lipner (comparative theology virtues/truth/ideology). Indian scholars: Govindacharya, Seal, Satchidananda, Daya Krishna, Sharma, Rambachan. Swami Narayan: rigorous monotheism, global dialogue. Cosmopolitan Hindu monotheism needed for relevance; theology's university future involves transformation via engagement, affirming Hinduism's monotheistic interpretability in dialogue.
